hamburger

Multiplexing and Digital Coding Techniques Study Notes for GATE EC 2022 Exam

By BYJU'S Exam Prep

Updated on: September 25th, 2023

Multiplexing and Digital Coding Techniques Study Notes: In this article, you may find the Study Notes related to Multiplexing types and Digital Coding Techniques  will cover the following topics i.e., Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing, Code Division Multiplexing, Introduction to Coding Techniques, Channel Coding, Linear Block Codes, Hamming Weights and Distances, Syndrome Decoding 

Multiplexing

  • Multiplexing is a technique in which several message signals are combined into a composite signal for transmission over a common channel. In order to transmit a number of these signals over the same channel, the signal must be kept apart so that they do not interfere with each other, and hence they can be separated easily at the receiver end.

image001

  • Digital radio has developed ways in which more than one conversation can be accommodated (multiplexed) inside the same physical RF channel. There are three common ways of achieving this:
    • Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
    • Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
    • Code Divisional Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency Division Multiplexing

  • In FDMA, we divide the whole bandwidth of the channel into small segments and allot it to different users so that they can access the channel at the same time by using their allotted bandwidth.

image002

Time Division Multiplexing

  • In TDMA, the whole time slot is divided among different users so that at a time only one user is accessing the channel.

image003

Key Points:

  • Bandwidth requirement in TDMA and FDMA is almost the same for the same number of users.
  • The TDMA system can be used to multiplex analogue or digital signals, however, it is more suitable for digital signal multiplexing.
  • The communication channel over which the TDMA signal is travelling should ideally have an infinite bandwidth in order to avoid signal distortion. Such channels are known as band-limited channels.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDMA)

  • Instead of splitting the RF channel into sub-channels or time slots, each slot has a unique code. Unlike FDMA, the transmitted RF frequency is the same in each slot, and unlike TDMA, the slots are transmitted simultaneously. In the diagram, the channel is split into four code slots. Each slot is still capable of carrying a separate conversation because the receiver only reconstructs information sent from a transmitter with the same code.

Introduction to Coding Technique:

Codes can either correct or merely detect errors depends on the redundancy contained in the code. Codes that can detect errors are called error-detecting codes, and codes that can correct errors are known as error-correcting codes. There are many different error control codes. These are divided into two types of codes i.e.,  block codes and convolutional codes. These two codes are described by binary codes which consist of only two elements i.e., 0.1. The set {0, 1} is denoted K.

Channel Coding:

A basic block diagram for the channel coding is shown in the Figure below. The binary data sequence at the input terminal of the channel encoder may be the output of a source encoder. By adding extra bits into the message bits by the channel encoder for detection and correction of the bit errors in the original input data is done at the receiver. The added extra bits leads to symmetric redundancy.  The channel decode at the receiver side removes this symmetric redundancy by providing the actual transmitted data. The main objective of the channel encoder and decoder is to reduce the channel noise effect.

\

Linear Block Codes:

Binary Field:

The binary field has two operations, addition and multiplication such that the results of all operations are in K.The set K = {0, 1) is a binary field. The rules of addition and multiplication are as follows:

Addition:

0 ⊕ 0 = 0        1 ⊕ 1 = 0      0 ⊕  1 = 1 ⊕  0 = 1  

Multiplication:

0 ⋅ 0 = 0 1 ⋅ 1 = 1        0 ⋅ 1 = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0

Linear Codes:

Let a = (a1, a2, … ,an), and b = (b1, b2, . . . ,bn) be two codewords in a code C. The sum of a and b, denoted by a ⊕ b, is defined by (a1 ⊕ b1, a2 ⊕ b2, . . . , an ⊕ bn). A code C is called linear if the sum of two code words is also a code word in C. A linear code C must contain the zero codeword o = (0, 0,.. . ,0), since a ⊕ a = 0.

Hamming Weight and Distance:

Let C be a code word with length n. The Hamming weight of C denoted by w(c), is the number of 1’s in C.

Let a and b be codewords of length n. The hamming distance between a and b is represented by d (a,b) means the number of positions where a, b differ. Thus, the Hamming weight of a codeword c is the Hamming distance between c and 0, that is

w(c) = d(c, 0)

Similarly, the Hamming distance can be written in terms of Hamming weight as

d(a, b) = w(a ⊕ b)

Minimum Distance:

The minimum distance dmin of a linear code C is defined as the smallest Hamming distance between any pair of codewords in C.

From the closure property of linear codes–that is, the sum (module 2) of two codewords is also a codeword.

Theorem 1:

“The minimum distance dmin of a linear code C is  defined as the smallest Hamming weight of the non-zero code word in the linear code C.”

Error Detection and Correction Capabilities:

The minimum distance dmin of a linear code C is an important parameter of C. It determines the error detection and correction capabilities of C. This is stated in the following theorems.

Theorem 2:

In a  linear code (C ) of minimum distance dmin  is useful to detect up to t errors by following the condition.

dmin ≥ t + 1”

Theorem 3:

A linear code C of minimum distance dmin can correct up to t errors if and only if

dmin ≥ 2t + 1

, there exists a received word r such that d(ci, r) ≤ t, and yet r is as close to cj as it is to ci. Thus, the decoder may choose cj, which is incorrect.

Generator Matrix:

In a (n, k) linear block code C, we define a code vector c and a data (or message) vector d as follows:

c = [c1,c2,…,cn]

d = [d1,d2,…,dk]

If the data bits appear in the specified location of C, then the code C is named systematic code. Otherwise, it is called non-systematic. Here we assume that the first k bits of c are the data bits and the last (n–k) bits are the parity-check bits formed by a linear combination of data bits, that is,

ck+1 = p11d1 ⊕ p12d2 ⊕ ⋅  ⋅  ⋅  ⊕ p1kdk

ck+2 = p21d1 ⊕ p22d2 ⊕ ⋅  ⋅  ⋅  ⊕ p2kdk

  ⋮

ck+m = pm1d1 ⊕ pm2d2 ⊕ ⋅  ⋅  ⋅  ⊕ pmkdk

where m = n – k. The above equation can be written in a matrix form as:

\

where             G = [Ik PT]    

where Ik is the kth-order identity matrix and PT is the transpose of the matrix P given by

\

The k X n matrix G is called the Generator Matrix. Note that a generator matrix for C must have k rows and n columns, and it must have rank k; that is, the k rows of G are linearly independent.

Parity-Check Matrix:

Let H denote an m X n matrix defined by

H = [P   Im]              

where m = n – k and Im is the mth-order identity matrix. Then

\      

Using the above equations, we have

  \    

where 0 denotes the k × m zero matrix. Now we have,

cHT = dGHT = 0

where 0 denotes the 1 × m zero vector.

The matrix H is called the parity-check matrix of C. Note that the rank of H is m = n – k and the rows of H are linearly independent. The minimum distance dmin of a linear block code C is closely related to the structure of the parity-check matrix H of C.

Syndrome Decoding:

Let r denote the received word of length n when codeword c of length n was sent over a noisy channel. Then, r = c ⊕ e, where ‘e’ is termed as the error pattern. Note that e = r + c.

let us consider first, the case of a single error in the ith position. Then we can represent e by e = [0 . . . 010 . . . 0]

Next, we evaluate rHT and obtain

rHT = (c ⊕ e)HT = cHT ⊕eHT = eHT = S    

Here, S is called the syndrome of r.

Thus, using s and noting that eHT is the ith row of HT. Now we can find the error position by comparing S to the H.  Decoding by this simple comparison method is called syndrome decoding. Note that by using the syndrome decoding technique all error patterns can be correctly be decoded. The zero syndromes indicate that r is a code word and is presumably correct.

With syndrome decoding, an (n, k) linear block code can correct up to t errors per codeword if n and k satisfy the following Hamming bound.

 \         

 

A block code for which equality holds is known as the perfect code. Single error-correcting perfect codes are called Hamming codes.

NOTE:  The Hamming bound is necessary but not sufficient for the construction of a terror correcting linear block code.

Candidates can practice 150+ Mock Tests with BYJU’S Exam Prep Test Series for exams like GATE, ESE, NIELIT  from the following link:

Click Here to Avail Electronics Engineering Test Series (150+ Mock Tests)

Get unlimited access to 24+ structured Live Courses all 150+ mock tests to boost your GATE 2021 Preparation with Online Classroom Program:

Click here to avail Online Classroom Program for Electronics Engineering

Thanks

Download BYJU’S Exam Prep, Best gate exam app for Preparation
Our Apps Playstore
POPULAR EXAMS
SSC and Bank
Other Exams
GradeStack Learning Pvt. Ltd.Windsor IT Park, Tower - A, 2nd Floor, Sector 125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201303 help@byjusexamprep.com
Home Practice Test Series Premium