Study Notes on Probability

By Vijeta Bhatt|Updated : February 22nd, 2022

To have an understanding in combinations and permutations you must first have a basic understanding in probability.

probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood of the event. Probability is established on a scale from 0 to 1. A rare even has a probability close to 0; a very common event has a probability close to 1.

 

In order to solve and understand problems pertaining to probability you must know some vocabulary:

  • An experiment, such as rolling a die or tossing a coin, is a set of trials designed to study a physical occurrence.
  • An outcome is any result of a particular experiment. For example, the possible outcomes for flipping a coin are heads or tails.
  • A sample space is a list of all the possible outcomes of an experiment.
  • An event is a subset of the sample space. For example, getting heads is an event.

Counting Principles

  1. Theorem (The basic principle of counting): If the set E contains n elements and the set F contains m elements, there are nm ways in which we can choose, first, an element of E and then an element of F.
  2. Theorem (The generalized basic principle of counting): If r experiments that are to be performed are such that the first one may result in any of n1 possible outcomes, and if for each of these n1 possible outcomes there are n2 possible outcomes of the second experiment, and if for each of the possible outcomes of the first two experiments there are n3 possible outcomes of the third experiment, and if …, then there is a total of n­1.n2…nr, possible outcomes of the r experiments.
  3. Theorem: A set with n elements has 2n subsets.
  4. Tree diagrams

image001

Permutations

  1. Permutation: n!
    The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time: image002
  2. Theorem: The number of distinguishable permutations of n objects of k different types, where n1 are alike, n2 are alike, …, nk are alike and n=n1+n2+…+nk, is 

byjusexamprep

Combinations

  1. Combination: The number of combinations of n things taken r at a time: image004 (combinatorial coefficient; binomial coefficient)
  2. Binomial theorem: image005
  3. Multinomial expansion: In the expansion of (x1+x2+…+xk)n, the coefficient of the term image006, n1+n2+…+nk=n, is image003. Therefore, (x1+x2+…+xk)n = image007.
    Note that the sum is taken over all nonnegative integers n1, n2,…,nk such that n1+n2+…+nk=n.

The Number of Integer Solutions of Equations

  1. There are image008 distinct positive integer-valued vectors (x1,x2,…,xy) satisfying x1+x2+…+xr = n, xi>0, i=1,2,…,r.
  2. There are image009 distinct nonnegative integer-valued vectors (x1,x2,…,xy) satisfying x1+x2+…+xr = n.

Axioms of Probability

Sample Space and Events

  1. Experiment: An experiment (strictly speaking, a random experiment) is an operation which can result in two or more ways. The possible results of the experiment are known as outcomes of the experiment. These outcomes are known in advance. We cannot predict which of these possible outcomes will appear when the experiment is done.
  2. Sample Space: The set containing all the possible outcomes of an experiment as its element is known as sample space. It is usually denoted by S.
  3. Event: An event is a subset of the sample space S.

Illustration 1:

Let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin. This experiment has two possible outcomes: heads (H) or tails (T)

  • sample space (S) = {H, T}

We can define one or more events based on this experiment. Let us define the two events A and B as:

A: heads appears

B: tails appears

It is easily seen that set A (corresponding to event A) contains outcomes that are favorable to event A and set B contains outcomes favorable to event B. Recalling that n (A) represents the number of elements in set A, we can observe that

n (A) = number of outcomes favorable to event A

n (B) = number of outcomes favorable to event B

n (S) = number of possible outcomes

Here, in this example, n (A) = 1, n (B) = 1, and n (S) = 2.

  • Set theory concepts: set, element, roster method, rule method, subset, null set (empty set).
  • Complement: The complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all elements of S that are not in A. We denote the complement of A by the symbol A’ (Ac).
  • Intersection: The intersection of two events A and B, denoted by the symbol AB, is the event containing all elements that are common to A and B.
    Two events A and B are mutually exclusive, or disjoint, if AB = φ that is, if A and B have no elements in common.
  • The union of the two events A and B, denoted by the symbol AB, is the event containing all the elements that belong to A or B or both.

byjusexamprep

  • Venn diagram:
  • Sample space of an experiment: All possible outcomes (points)
  • Events: subsets of the sample space
    Impossible events (impossibility): Φ; sure events (certainty): S.

image011

  • DeMorgan’s laws:

image012

Axioms of Probability

  1. Probability axioms:
    (1) 0≤P(A)≤1;
    (2) P(S)=1;
    (3) P(A1∪A2∪…) = P(A1)+P(A2)+… If {A1, A2, …} is a sequence of mutually exclusive events.
  2. Equally likely outcomes: the probabilities of the single-element events are all equal.
    A number of sample events are said to be equally likely if there is no reason for one event to occur in preference to any other event.

Basic Theorems

(1) 0≤P(A)≤1;

(2) image013

(3) Complementary events: image014

(4) P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B): inclusion-exclusion principle

(5) If A1, A2, An is a partition of sample space S, then

image015

(6) if a and a’ are complementary events, then P(A) + P(A’)=1.

Conditional Probability and Independence

Conditional Probability

1. Conditional probability: image016

Consider two events A and B defined on a sample space S. The probability of occurrence of event A given that event B has already occurred is known as the conditional probability of A relative to B.

P(A/B) = P(A given B) = probability of occurrence of A assuming that B has occurred

It implies that the outcomes favorable to B become the possible outcomes and hence outcomes favorable to P(A/B) are outcomes common to A and B.

Let n(B)=a and n(A∩B)=b. Suppose that the event B occurs. Then there are exactly a sample points and these points can be considered to be the sample space for the other event A. The event A in this sample space consists of b sample points common to A and B.

Therefore, the probability of A in this sample space = b/a.

Thus the probability of A under the assumption that event B has occurred is:

image017

and similarly image018

The above result is known as conditional probability theorem.

2. If in an experiment the events A and B can both occur, then P(A∩B) = P(A)P(B|A) = P(B)P(A|B).

P(A∩B∩C) = P(A∩B)P(C|A∩B) = P(A)P(B|A)P(C|A∩B),

The multiplication rule: P(A1∩A2 ∩…∩ An) = P(A1)P(A2|A1)P(A3|A1∩A2) … P(An|A1∩A2∩…∩An-1).

3. Partition: Let {B1, B2, …, Bn} be a set of nonempty subsets of the sample space S of an experiment. If the events B1, B2, …, Bn are mutually exclusive and B1∪B2∪…∪Bn = S, the set {B1, B2, …, Bn} is called a partition of S.

4. Theorem of total probability: If B1, B2, … is a partition of S, and A is any event, then image019

Total Probability Theorem: The probability that one of several mutually exclusive events A1, A2, .... An will happen is the sum of the probabilities of the separate events. i.e.

P(A1∪A2∪An) = P(A1)+P(A2)+.... + P(An)

5. Bayes’ Theorem: If B1, B2, … is a partition of S, and A is any event, then image021

Independence

  1. Independent events: If A, B are independent events ↔ P(A∩B) = P(A)P(B).
  2. Theorem: If A and B are independent, then image022 are independent.
  3. The events A, B, and C are called independent if P(A∩B) = P(A)P(B), P(A∩C) = P(A)P(C), P(B∩C) = P(B)P(C), P(A∩B∩C) = P(A)P(B)P(C). If A, B, and C are independent events, we say that {A, B, C} is an independent set of events.
  4. The set of events {A1, A2, …, An} is called independent if for every subset image023 of {A1, A2,…, An}, image024.

Important Results:

Following results are easily derived from the definition of independent events.

  1. A and B are independent if
    P(B/A) = P(B) and P(A/B) = P(A)
  2. If A and B are independent, then P (A∩B) = P (A) P (B)
  3. A set of events A1, A2,... An are said to be pair-wise independent if
    P(Ai n Aj) = P(Ai) P(Aj) ∀i ≠j.
  4. The events A1, A2, ... An are mutually independent (or simply independent) if and only if the multiplication rule:
    P(A1∩A2.... Ak) = P(A1) P(A2) .... P(Ak) ... (1)
    holds for every t triples of events, k = 2, 3, .... n. If (1) holds for k = 2 and may not hold for k = 3, 4, ....... n then events A1, A2, ... An are said to be pair wise independent. Thus mutually independent events are pair wise independent but converse is not true.
  5. If A and B are mutually independent events such that P (A) ≠ 0 and P (B) ≠ 0, then the events A and B have at least one common sample point (i.e. they cannot be mutually exclusive). Or in general, mutually exclusive events are dependent events.

 

 

Distribution Functions and Discrete Random Variables

Distribution Functions

1. Cumulative Distribution Functions (cafe): FX(t) = P(X≤t), -∞ < t < ∞.

2. FX(t) is non-decreasing; 0≤FX(t)≤1; image001

If c<d, then FX(c)≤FX(d); P(c<Xd) = FX(d)-FX(c); P(X>c) = 1-FX(c).

The cdf of a discrete random variable: a step function.

Special Discrete Distributions

Bernoulli and Binomial Random Variables

1. Bernoulli trials: an experiment with two different possible outcomes

Bernoulli random variable X with parameter p, p is the probability of a success.

px(x) = px(1-p)1-x = pxq1-x, for xRX = {0,1}

Expected value: E[X] = μx = p; variance: image002

2. Binomial distribution: number of successes to occur in n repeated, independent Bernoulli trials

Binomial random variable Y with parameters n and p

image003

Expected value: E(Y) = μY = np; Variance: image004

Multinomial Random Variables

1. Multinomial trials: an experiment with k≥2 different possible outcomes

2. Multinomial distribution: n independent multinomial trials

Multinomial random variable X1, X2, …, Xk with parameters n, p1, p2, …pk; Xt: the number of ith outcomes; image005image006image007

image008

Geometric distribution: trial number of the first success to occur in a sequence of independent Bernoulli trials

Geometric random variable N with parameter p

image009

Geometric series: image010

Expected value: image011; variance: image012

Negative binomial distribution: trial number of the rth success to occur

Negative binomial random variable N, with parameters r, p

image013

Expected value: image014; variance: image015

Poisson Distribution

1. The Poisson probability function: image016

Poisson random variable K with parameter λ

Expected value: E(K) = μK = λ; variance: image018

2. he Poison approximation to the binomial: If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p=λ/n, then image019

Continuous Random Variables

Probability Density Functions

1. Densities

2. Probability density function (pdf) for a continuous random variable X: fx(x)

fx(x)≥0

For all

image020

Cumulative Distribution Functions (cdf)

1. image021

2. The cdf of a discrete random variable: a step function; the cdf of a continuous random variable: a continuous function

3. The probability function of a discrete random variable: size of the jump in FX(t); the pdf of a continuous random variable: image022

Expectations and Variances

1. Definition: If X is a continuous random variable with pdf fx(x), the expected value of X is defined by image023.

Example: In a group of adult males, the difference between the uric acid value and 6, the standard value, is a random variable X with the following pdf: fx(x) = image024 (3x2 – 2x) if 2/3<x<3. Calculate the mean of these differences for the group.

2. Theorem: Let X be a continuous random variable with pdf fx(x); then for any function himage025.

3. Corollary: Let X be a continuous random variable with pdf fx(x). Let h1, h2, …, hn be real-valued functions and α1, α2, …, αn be real numbers. Then E[α1h1(X) + α2h2(X) + … + αnhn(X)] = α1E[h1(X)] + α2E[h2(X)] + … + αnE[hn(X)].

4. Definition: If X is a continuous random variable with E[X] = μx, then Var[X] and σx, called the variance and standard deviation of X, respectively, are defined by image026, image027.

Special Continuous Distributions

Uniform Random Variable

1. Density of a uniformly distributed random variable: image028

2. The cdf of a uniformly distributed random variable:

image029

3. The expected value and variance of the uniform random variable: image001; image031.

The Exponential Distribution

1. The exponential probability law with parameter λ: image032

T1 is the time of occurrence of the first event in a Poisson process with parameter λ, starting at an arbitrary origin t=0; {Xλt = 0} ≡ {T1>t}, Poisson process Xλt is the number of events to occur with parameter μ=λt.

2. The expected value and variance of the exponential random variable: image033

The Erlang Distribution

1. The cdf and pdf for T2image034

T2 Is the time of occurrence of the second event in a Poisson process with parameter λ, starting at an arbitrary origin t=0; {Xλt1} ≡ {T2>t}, Poisson process Xλt is the number of events to occur with parameter μ=λt?

2. The Erlang probability law with parameters r and λ: image035

Tr is the time of occurrence of the rth event in a Poisson process with parameter λ, starting at an arbitrary origin t=0; {Xλt ≤ r - 1} ≡ {Tr>t}, Xλt is the number of events to occur.

3. The expected value and variance of the Erlang random variable: image036

The Gamma Distribution

1. The gamma probability law with parameters n and λ: image037 for u>0, n>0, λ>0.

Gamma function: image038; Γ(n) = (n-1)Γ(n-1); Γ(n) = (n-1)!, if n is a positive integer.

The Erlang random variable is a particular case of a gamma random variable, where n is restricted to the integer values r=1,2,3,….

2. The expected value and variance of the gamma random variable: image039

The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution

1. The normal probability law with parameters μ and σ: image040, for -∞<x<∞,σ>0.

2. The expected value and variance of the normal random variable: image041.

3. Standard normal random variable (the unit normal): image042, μ=0, σ=1.

4. The new random variable: If X is normal with mean μ and variance σ2, then X+b is normal with mean μ+b and variance σ2; aX is normal with mean and variance a2σ2; aX+b is normal with mean aμ+b and variance a2σ2.

5. Switching from a non-unit normal to the unit normal: image043, μz=0, σz=1.

6. The probability that a normal random variable is with k standard deviations of the mean: P(μ-kσ≤X≤μ+kσ) = P(-k≤X*≤k), X* is the unit normal.

7. The normal approximation to the binomial: A binomial distribution X with parameters n, p where n is large, then X is approximately normal with μ = np, σ2 = npq.

Jointly Distributed Random Variables

Joint Densities

1. Jointly distributed random variable: If the observed values for two or more random variables are simultaneously determined by the same random mechanism.

2. The discrete random variables X1, X2: the probability function is image044 for all x1, x2; image045. The continuous random variables X1, X2: the pdf  is positive; image047 for all x1, x2; image048; the probability is given by integrating byjusexamprep.

3. The joint density of independent random variables: The random variables X, Y are independent if and only if pX,Y(x,y) = pX(x)pY(y), when X, Y are discrete; fX,Y(x,y) = fX(x)fY(y), when X, Y are continuous.

4. Uniform joint densities: If X and Y are jointly uniform on a region, the joint pdf is image049, for (x, y) in the region.

The joint density of independent uniform random variables: image050

Marginal Densities

1. The discrete random variables X1, X2 with the probability function image051 and range image052, the marginal probability function for X1 is image053 for image054 is the marginal range for X1, the set of first elements of image055.

2. The continuous random variables X1, X2 with pdf image046 and range byjusexamprep, the marginal pdf for X1 is image056 for byjusexamprep. is the marginal range for X1, the set of first elements of byjusexamprep.

Sums of Independent Random Variables

1. The sum of independent binomials with a common p: X1 with parameters n1, p, X2 with parameters n2, p, then X1+X2 with parameters n1+n2,p

2. The sum of independent Poissons: X1 with parameter λ1, X2 with parameters λ2, then X1+X2 with parameters λ1+λ2

3. The sum of independent exponentials with a common λ: X1, …, Xn with parameter λ, then X1 +…+ Xn has a gamma(Erlang) distribution with parameters n,λ.

4. The density of the sum of two arbitrary independent random variables: the convolution of the individual pdfimage057

5. The sum of independent normals: X1 with mean μ1 and variance image058 with mean μ2 and variance image059, then X1+X2 with mean μ12 and variance image060

 

 

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